October 2008

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A Buddhist scripture of around the late 4th century, the Maniratna Sutra (‘Precious Jewel’ scripture) is a treatise on demons preached by the Buddha to his disciples and lay believers. The Buddha expounds the teachings of the Seven Buddhas of the Past that all suffering is attributable to demons. Demons and ghosts, malevolent spirits of popular belief, were seen as the perpetrators of all manner of suffering, evil deeds, illness, accidents and hardship. He classifies demons into groups by locations they inhabit – mountains, forests, fields, etc., and lists them by type – demons of corpses, of the living, of sleep, food, starvation, covetousness, greed, itching, wasting, stumbling, madness and so on. One category includes ghosts of people who died of various causes. This kind of detailed information was believed to have the power to protect against harm. Higher-level demons could be enlisted to control other demons and keep them away. Uttering the names of the protective demons, in particular two named Deep Sands and Floating Hill, had special efficacy for defeating all malignant spirits.10 In this way the scripture offered itself as a protective, wish-granting jewel.

Another scripture, the Consecration Sutra (Guanding jing), compiled in the 5th century, includes a reworking and supplementation of the Maniratna Sutra.11 The eighth chapter of the Consecration Sutra offers a protective spell and advises people to concentrate on the protective spirits, i.e., buddhas, bodhisattvas, disciples, devas (gods), nagarajas (dragon kings), good spirit-generals and demon spirits. At least some demons were thus brought into the circle of protective Buddhist spirits and deities. The demons of the North Cave are likely to have been regarded as protective spirits, tamed and kneeling in the service of Buddhism. In the North Cave, images of buddhas and bodhisattvas and other divinities are illuminated and protected by the jewels of the enlightened mind, which subdue malevolent spirits and keep the suffering of the world at bay. The family of the Emperor Gao Yang, together with their subjects, were meant to be the beneficiaries of these blessings. Figures carved in low relief on the front wall of the cave, partially preserved at both sides of the damaged entrance, are likely to depict members of the royal family and court. In the last years of his reign, Gao Yang succumbed to his own demons, of alcoholism and insanity. However, his young son and two of his own brothers and their descendants succeeded to the throne before the dynasty was overthrown by the Northern Zhou in 577.

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